The Transmission Model Of Communications

The Transmission Model Of Communications Most professionals need a few theories to back up their thinking and also to help give substance to their recommendations. A few theories and models give us a concrete and rational foundation for decision-making. These are especially helpful when thinking about how to tackle an issue and how to work out what is going on. They are useful too when devising plans and writing communications strategies, explaining concepts to colleagues and clients or giving focus when we need direction. These are my ten top theories, the ones I have found most useful in over thirty years as a practitioner, consultant and lecturer. Theory One Shannon and Weaver the transmission model of communications One of the oldest and simplest theories about communications came from Shannon and Weaver (1949). But Shannon and Weaver were not PR professionals; they worked for Bell Telephone Labs in the USA. Shannon and Weaver were focused on issues about accuracy and efficiency in telephony. Their model is both simple to understand and generally applicable and this originally made it attractive to not only people working in PR and communications but also academics who have since developed more sophisticated models and theories to explain the process of human and organisational communications. Shannon and Weavers original model often called the transmission model consisted of five sequential elements: An information source, that produces a message. A transmitter, that encodes the message into signals A channel, that carries the signals, which have been adapted to allow transmission A receiver, that decodes the message from the signal A destination, where the message arrives. They also included a sixth element, noise, defined as any interference with the message travelling along the channel that could change or impair the signal and so change the original message into something different from that intended. This transmission model, which has been around for a long time, is somewhat simplistic. But it does serve as a reminder to practitioners about the basic processes involved in communications and in PR. Its also the basis for social scientist and guru on propaganda Harold Lasswells explanation of communications as being Who says What to Whom in What Channel with What Effect Shannon and Weaver argued that there are three problems when thinking about communications: The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted? The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning conveyed? The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behaviour? They assumed that sorting out the technical problems would largely solve the semantic and effectiveness problems (and that really is simplistic). You can see that there are a few problems with this model. It is linear and one-way there is no engagement with the receiver. The sender is called the information source it is not a complex sender. The receiver appears to be a passive and accepting, a simple and willing absorber of information, hardly a critical interpreter of what he or she is exposed to. There is no way to assess whether the receiver has accurately picked up the message and then believed it or acted upon it. There is no consideration of the context of meaning (is this teacher to parent, politician to floating voter?). Nor to when in terms of time the communication takes place. But then again this theory was devised by and for telecommunications engineers. Consequently this simple model cannot reflect the complex psychology of the human being or the physiology of the human brain. Nor does it accommodate the existing relationships between sender and receiver, or the infinite ways a message can be encoded in term s of words and pictures. Also it does not allow for the unique characteristics of the multiple channels that could be use d to get the message across and that affect how a message will be seen and interpreted. So theor y one is a useful start point. Theory Two James Carey transportation/communications links http://wyolife.com/Thank%20US/morse%20telegraph.jpg Invention and technology have a huge part to play in the development of corporate communications. James Carey was an American academic and journalism specialist. In his book Communication As Culture (1989) Carey discussed the development of the telegraph and its understated role in future developments in communication. The non-electric telegraph was invented by Claude Chappe in 1794 and was a visual system using semaphore, a flag-based alphabet, and depending on a line of sight for communication. The optical telegraph was subsequently replaced by the electric telegraph, the invention of Samuel Morse. Morse proved that signals could be transmitted by wire and, to facilitate this developed the Morse Code. The first news dispatched by electric telegraph was in May 1844. The death knell for the electric telegraph came with the invention of the telephone in 1877. So before the nineteenth century the movement of information was more or less the same as the transport of goods or people and both were described as communication. Before the telegraph (and the telephone) most decisions particularly business and political decisions were made face to face. Carey argued that the telegraph permitted for the first time the effective separation of communication from transportation. So after the telegraph, as soon as messages could travel faster than the people, horses or trains that delivered them, everything changed, in terms of how humans communicated across distances and over time. Geography became irrelevant, enabling communities to move away from the local, towards the national, and international or global. The telegraph allowed people from one side of the world to communicate almost instantaneously with someone on the other side of the world. How quaint this seems in todays digital world but this helps us look at the origins of modern communication. Because this shows to some extent where plain English came from. The short brief telegraph demanded a prose style that Carey noted was more à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦lean and unadorned. Think of a tweetà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. So all those years ago it was the simple old telegraph that first called for the plainest of writing and, as a knock-on effect, changed the way news was written. At the same time style became more objective because these words would be read by individuals of many different beliefs and opinions, from many different communities, regions and countries. Technological advances continue to have a huge impact on how we practice communications on what messages work, on how we encode our message, on what channels to use so that the receiver sees and hears it accurately and so on. The meaning of the message comes from the process listeners, readers and/or viewers go through when they make sense of what they see, hear and feel. Meaning is not extracted from but constructed by the message. Its clear that, while we dont need to be technician, everyone working in the field of communications must keep abreast of developments in technology because you can bet your bottom dollar they will have an impact of professional communications practice. Theory Three Grunig and Hunts Four Models for Public Relations Managing Public Relations written by Grunig and Hunt (1984) highlighted four models for how organizations can chose to practice public relations. The four models developed more or less chronologically through the twentieth century. This is the most often cited theory of public relations and these theories are still relevant, taught as part of graduate, post-graduate and vocational qualifications across the UK and overseas. The Four Models Press agent model one way communication where an organization tells an audience what it wants it to believe. Little or no research to determine audiences needs interests or inclinations to agree with the organisations objectives. This is the simple, original, historic model for PR with the focus on getting favourable coverage (ie publicity) for your organization, cause, celebrity, brand via the media. One -way transfer of information No feedback Little or no research Information is not always accurate all publicity is good publicity Public information model a journalists approach to public relations, offers truthful accurate information about an organisation leaving our damaging or harmful information. This model developed pretty much as a reaction to attacks on large corporations and government agencies by investigative journalists. The leaders of these institutions needed more than simple propaganda peddled by press agents to counter the attacks on them in the media. So they hired their own journalists to act as public relations practitioners, and press handouts were written and distributed to give their point of view and explain actions. This is also the model where essential information is provided to the people and persuasion or attitude change is not essential. Examples might be letting people know about the weather, about road traffic, or internally about new appointments and soon. The approach is very much lets get the facts out. One way transfer of information Some evaluation on effectiveness Little or no research about the audience(s) Used most often by government Truthful and accurate Two-way asymmetrical model emphasises a change in attitudes or behaviours in the audience only in accordance with the objectives and goals of the organisation. Persuasive communication really has its origins here. In 1917 during World War 1 US President Woodrow Wilson set up The Creel Committee (AKA CPI Committee on Public Information). Committee members included the so-called founder of modern public relations practice, social scientist Edward Bernays. Communications took a more scientific approach that made the practice two-way with practitioners both seeking information from and giving information to publics. Theories introduced by Bernays were those of propaganda, persuasion, and the engineering of consent. This model is clearly at work when attempts are made to influence publics to adopt a preferred point of view or behaviour. Research provides input into the process (for example research into why people buy a new car help manufacturers create motivating relevant messages). Scientific persuasion Two-way transfer of information Research done to persuade audience(s) Messages created to persuade Model slanted in favour of organization The two-way symmetrical model uses research to better understand the audience and to resolve disputes. Each party the sender and receiver is willing to alter messages and even behaviours to accommodate the others needs. The two-way symmetrical model makes use of research and other forms of two-way communication. Unlike the two-way asymmetrical model, however, it uses research to facilitate understanding and communication rather than to identify messages most likely to motivate or persuade publics. A good example might be management and workforce in a consultation process enabling a change of policies and practices resulting in higher productivity and better pay and conditions. This model includes ideas and principles like telling the truth, interpreting the client and public to one another and management understanding the viewpoints of employees and neighbours as well as employees and neighbours understanding the viewpoints of management. It is perhaps a communications ideal as many organisations are unwilling to go all the way and engage so fully with audiences as they wish to retain the concept of control. It could be argued that modern technology and digital communications is forcing even the most reluctant organisation to have to consider this model seriously to maintain a competitive or an ethical position that enhances reputation. Behaviour change on both sides Research done to understand, not manipulate, the audience Strategies include consultation, bargaining, negotiation , discussion, compromise Best model of communication? http://tidforlivet.files.wordpress.com/2012/04/tabell.png https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVFOhhSayuXjj67umALrjOYWq6KREsnIhGtXVBb6cVea2q6f6oBvOS044o5892KzmkAA3DBwWpA4OAHBL4Ze7RshJqHjPVljYTUFDT7hRbjdyPBIv6XloIZscCCNGu-EtqKUCYymnVDUw/s400/Ethical_Influence.png http://www.derekchristensen.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/cialdini-influence-chart.png Theory Four Robert Cialdini and Influence Arguably one of the key tasks of corporate communications is to influence others to comply with what you want; which may be to understand an issue, engage in debate, prefer or like or support your point of view, or behave a different way. Robert Cialdini, Regents Professor Emeritus of Psychology and Marketing at Arizona State University has made influence his lifes work. Having observed extensively how influence works by studying compliance professionals (people skilled in getting others to do what they want them to do salespeople, fundraisers, recruiters, advertisers and so on) he published, in 1984, Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion. I was given this book when I worked in the advertising industry and I go back to these ideas time and time again. Cialdini arrived at what he called his six weapons of influence and we can see these six principles at work in many successful PR and communications programmes. But do take care influence in the wrong hands becomes manipulation. There are many examples when this thinking has been used for evil ends. Use these strategies for good, not to persuade people to do things that are wrong. Examine your conscience and apply this thinking ethically 1. Reciprocity People generally aim to return a compliment. They invite people to come to dinner having been invited themselves; they pay back debts; they treat others as they are treated. Its youà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦meà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦youà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦meà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. This leads us to feel obliged to offer concessions or discounts to others if they have offered them to us first because we feel uncomfortable if we feel indebted to them. For example youll giving money to a fundraiser who has given you a little badge or sticker; a free tasting of a new food product in-store may make you buy a pack; you might decide to buy more from a supplier if they have offered you preferential terms first. You can sometimes use this principle by simply reminding the other person of how you have helped them in the past. Key thing is to give a service, information or a concession. Your target will then be primed to return the favour. To use reciprocity ethically to influence others, identify objectives, and consider wha t you want the target to do. You can then identify what you can give to them in return. 2. Commitment and Consistency Once weve committed to something, were then more inclined to go through with it because, says Cialdini, we human beings have an innate desire to be consistent. For example people who sign a petition supporting a new community facility are more likely to donate money to that cause when asked later. Get peoples commitment early on, either verbally or in writing. For example, if the communications programme is building support for the building of a new supermarket, communicate early on with stakeholders, and take their comments and views into account. 3. Social Proof This principle relies on peoples sense of safety in numbers because people tend to follow similar others. For example, were more likely put some money into a dish for staff tips if theres money already in that dish, well buy a product if lots of others have done so and provide testimonials that its good and and were more likely to support a policy if support seems high already. The assumption is that if lots of other people are doing something, then it must be OK, safe to do, good, right to do too. Were more likely to be influenced if we feel uncertain and, another key factor, is whether those people already behaving a certain way are like us in terms of lifetsage and lifestyle. Internally you could use social proof when trying to get support for a new project by getting the support from influential people in your organisation whose opinions others respect. And if you are selling a product, say how many people use it and get them to recommend it on social networking sites. 4 Liking Were more likely to be influenced by people we like. And people are more likely to buy from people like themselves, from friends, and from people they know and respect. Likability comes in many forms people might be similar or familiar to us, they might give us compliments, or we may just simply trust them.. Put in the time and effort needed to build trust and rapport with clients and people you work with, and behave with consistency. Develop your emptional intelligence together with active listening skils. But dont try too hard to be liked by others people can always spot a phoney. Companies that use sales agents from within the community employ the liking principle extensively and with huge success. 5. Authority We feel a sense of duty or obligation to people in positions of authority. This is why advertisers of pharmaceutical products employ doctors to front their campaigns, and why most of us will do most things that our manager requests. Job titles, uniforms, and even accessories like cars or gadgets can lend an air of authority, and can persuade us to accept what these people say. 6. Scarcity This principle says that things are more attractive when their availability is limited, or when we stand to lose the opportunity to acquire them on favorable terms. For instance, we might buy something immediately if were told that its the last one, or that a special offer will soon expire. Authority Here you can use both your own authority, and the authority of others, as influencers. When you use your own authority, be careful not to use it negatively. Our article onFrench and Ravens Five Forms of Power has more on different sources of power, and explains how you can use power and authority positively. To use authority, get support from influential and powerful people, and ask for their help in backing the idea. (Use Influence Maps to help you network with people who can help.) If youre marketing a product or service, highlight well-known and respected customers, use comments from industry experts, and talk about impressive research or statistics. Things like well-produced brochures, professional presentations, impressive offices, and smart clothing can also lend authority. Scarcity With this principle, people need to know that theyre missing out if they dont act quickly. If youre selling a product, limit the availability of stock, set a closing date for the offer, or create special editions of products. This principle can be trickier to apply within your organization if youre trying to influence others to support your ideas or projects. You can, however, use urgency to get support for your ideas. For example, you can highlight the possible urgent consequences of the problem that your idea helps to solve. http://www.mindtools.com/images/box/top460grey.png Tip: Remember that these are just six ways that you can influence others. Use these principles alongside other tools such as the Rhetorical Triangle, Monroes Motivated Sequence, Win-Win Negotiation, the Persuasion Tools Model, and the Minority Influence Strategy. You can also use Stakeholder Analysis and Management to build support for your ideas and projects. http://www.mindtools.com/images/box/bottom460grey.png Resisting Influence You can also use this tool when others are trying to influence you. In these situations, bear the following points in mind: Before accepting a free gift or a discounted service, or before agreeing to hear confidential information, ask yourself whether youre going to feel obliged to give the same or more in return. Should you decline, so that you dont feel indebted? Before agreeing to a course of action, even at a very preliminary level, think about the consequences of your decision. Will you feel so invested in this new course of action that you wont want to change your mind? Though everyone else is pursuing a particular route or buying a product, it may not be right for you. Avoid falling victim to the herd mentality. You might decide that its best to go against the trend. When you feel tempted to buy a product or sign up for a service, ask yourself whether youve fallen under the spell of a particularly likable salesperson. Is the salesperson similar to you, familiar to you, or extremely complimentary? Carefully note your reaction to authority figures. Has the person youre negotiating with triggered your respect for authority? Are you making your choice because you want to, or are you swayed by an expert opinion? And does this person genuinely have the authority he is implying, or is he merely using the symbols of that authority? Before you fall for a sales pitch claiming that a product is running out of stock or that a discount deal is soon to expire, think again. Do you really want or need the product now, or has its lack of availability caught your attention? http://www.mindtools.com/images/box/top460grey.png Key Points The Six Principles of Influence were created by Robert Cialdini, and published in his 1984 book, Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion. The principles are: reciprocity, commitment, social proof, liking, authority, and scarcity. You can use the six principles whenever you want to influence or persuade others. However, its also useful to use them with other tools. And, by knowing about the principles, you can become resistant to people who try to use them to manipulate you. You also need to make sure that you dont misuse these principles avoid using them to deceive or mislead people, and make sure that you use them for peoples good, rather than to disadvantage them. Theory Five Patrick Jackson and others the people change ladder Patrick Jackson was a public relations practitioner working in the US he and others considered the steps communicators has to go though in order to effect behaviour change Build awareness eg publicity, advertising, face to face communications Develop a latent readiness an inclination to make change during which opinions begin to form Trigger a desire to change via a natural or planned event Utilise an intermediate behaviour during which an individual begins to investigate new behaviours Changing behaviours and adopting the new behaviour Theory Six Mendelsohns Three Assumptions for Success Mendelsohn (1973) believed campaigns often failed because campaign designers overpromised, assumed the public would automatically receive and enthusiastically accept their messages, and blanketed the public with messages not properly targeted and likely to be ignored or misinterpreted. His Three Assumptions are still a touchstone for communications planning 1.Target your messages 2. Assume your target public is uninterested in your messages. 3. Set reasonable, midrange goals and objectives. Theory Seven Hierarchy of effects theory of persuasion This is a sequential representation of how advertising in particular influences a consumers decision to purchase or not a product or service. The hierarchy-of-effects theory is used to set up a structured series of message objectives with the aim of building on each successive step until the sale is achieved. Although this model is often used to plan advertising campaign it is a useful one to look at in relation to PR campaigns as often these too require a stepped approach. This thinking informs AMECs communications objectives funnel (see section on measurement and evaluation) Step 1 Exposure. Some PR programmes get no further than this just putting the message out. But just placing a message in an environment cannot guarantee it is seen or acknowledged. Step 2 Attention Even paid-for placed advertising will fail if the audience is not paying attention. A PR message must be capable of attracting attention and cutting through the noise of daily life. Complex messages have to capture even higher levels of attention, especially with attention spans diminishing as they are. Creativity, presentation and encoding are key elements at this stage. Carefully selected culturally specific and acceptable multi-sensory PR and communications techniques, using symbols, colours and music, are used to grab peoples attention and wake them up. Some aspects of attention are controlled by the potential receiver and some are involuntary responses to sensory cues. A sudden noise, for example, can get someones attention (essentially a human response mechanism to ensure quick responses to danger.) Conversely something amusing will draw attention because the receiver enjoys seeing it. Advertising practitioners may use physiological triggers like fast cut video to get and retain attention. But this is exhausting process requiring high levels of mental processing. So sometimes even though attention is gained, the desired message is lost in term sof being able to remember wht that was all about. Step 3 Involvement/Engagement Although research indicates people pay attention to sudden changes in sounds or visual effects, its true too that they stop paying attention if a message seems irrelevant, uninteresting, or distasteful. Messages that are relevant keep people interested and make them primed to absorb the information. This is essentially saying that communications needs to answer the question Whats in it for me? Once that is demonstrated, techniques like storytelling, examples and case histories and the use of novel content keeps the receiver engaged and interested. Step 4 Comprehension Keeping the receivers attention does not ensure he or she will understand the message. Step 5 Skill acquisition (learning how). Well-intentioned people may be unable to follow through on an idea if they lack the skills to do so. Potential voters without transportation to the polls will not vote; intended nonsmokers will not quit smoking without social support; interested restaurant patrons will not come if they cannot afford it; parents interested in a civic betterment program will not attend a meeting if they do not have child care. An effective campaign anticipates the target publics needs to provide the help they require. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), for example, found, through a Burke Marketing survey, that many people had a passive attitude about fire, many believed they had much more time to escape than they really do, and only 16% had developed and practiced a home fire escape plan. As a result, NFPAs 1998 Fire Safety Week promotion focused on teaching students about fire escape planning and practice, with incentives to encourage them to part icipate in a documented practice drill with their families. Although the Silver Anvil Award-winning campaign generated an enormous amount of publicity, the most dramatic result was that at least 25 lives were saved as a direct result of the families participation in the promotion. Step6 Persuasion (attitude change). Although McGuire listed this step following skills acquisition, attitude change often precedes skill development. People who lack the skills to follow through on an idea may tune out the details, figuring it is not relevant for them. Attitude change is another of the necessary but often insufficient steps in the persuasion process. Sometimes, however, attitude change is all that is necessary, particularly if the goal of a campaign is to increase a publics satisfaction with an organization in order to avoid negative consequences such as lawsuits, strikes, or boycotts. Usually, however, a campaign has an outcome behavior in mind. In that case, remember that people often have attitudes inconsistent with their behaviors. Many smokers believe smoking is a bad thing but still smoke. Many nonvoters say voting is important and they intend to vote, but they still fail to show up on election day. Step 7 Storing the new position in memory emory storage. This step is important because people receive multiple messages from multiple sources all day, every day. For them to act on your message, they need to remember it when the appropriate time comes to buy a ticket, make a telephone call, fill out a form, or attend an event. They need to be able to store the important information about your message in their memory, which may not be easy if other messages received simultaneously demand their attention. Key elements of messages, therefore, need to be communicated in ways that make them stand out for easy memorization. Step 8. Information retrieval. Simply storing information does not ensure that it will be retrieved at the appropriate time. People might remember your special event on the correct day but forget the location. Reminders or memory devices such as slogans, jingles, and refrigerator magnets can help. Step 9. Motivation (decision). This is an important step that many campaign designers forget in their own enthusiasm for their campaign goals.Remember Mendelsohns (1973) admonition that people may not be interested in the campaign? They need reasons to follow through. The benefits need to outweigh the costs. In addition, the benefits must seem realistic and should be easily obtained. The more effort required on the part of the message recipients the less likely it is that they will make that effort. If the message recipients believe a proposed behavior is easy, will have major personal benefits, or is critically important, they are more likely to act. The challenge for the program planner is to discover what will motivate the target audience successfully, an issue addressed later in this chapter. Elgin DDB of Seattle, when asked to help reduce Puget Sound curbside disposal of grass clippings by 5%, realized motivation would be an important focus. Focus groups and phone surveys indica ted that the target group, male homeowners aged 25 to 65, had an interest in grass-cycling but needed the proper tools to make it easy and practical. As a result, they arranged to recycle consumers old polluting gas mowers for free at a special event and sell Torro and Ryobi mulch mowers at below the normal retail price, with an additional rebate. With a goal of selling 3,000 mowers, they sold 5,000. They hoped to remove 1,500 gas mowers from the market and ended up recycling approximately 2,600. And, as for their original goal of reducing curbside disposal of grass clippings by 5%? They more than tripled the target amount, reducing grass clippings by 17%, winning a 1999 Silver Anvil Award. 10. Behavior. Success often is measured in terms of behaviors such as sales or attendance figures. Marketing experts, however, know that getting someones business once does not guarantee long-term success. One study (Building Customer, 1996) found that keeping customers loyal can boost profits up to 80%. As a result, the program planner needs to do everything possible to ensure that behavior attempts

Looking At The Personality Theory

Looking At The Personality Theory A person is a flow of powerful subjective life, conscious and unconscious; a whispering gallery in which voices echo from the distant past; a gulf stream of fantasies with floating memories of past events, currents of contending complexes, plots and counterplots, hopeful intimations and idealsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦A personality is a full Congress of orators and pressure groups, of children, demagogues, communists, isolationists, war-mongers, mugwumps, grafters, log rollers, lobbyists, Caesars and Christs, Machiavellis and Judases, Tories and Promethean revolutionists. (Murray, What Should Psychologists 160-61) The term personality is used by psychologists to denote a consistent pattern of responses to the world that the environment imposes upon the individual internally and externally (Kassarjian and Robertson 194). All the physical, mental and emotional characteristics of an individual as an integrated whole, especially as they are presented to others, form what we commonly term as personality. According to Robert B. Ewen, personality refers to important and relatively stable aspects of behaviour.(4) During the past one hundred years extensive research has been done by the various psychologists in this field. This research has given birth to what we now call Personality psychology. Personality psychology is a branch of psychology which studies human personality deeply using psychological theories. The scientific study of personality can be traced back to the year 1937, when Gordon Allport published his book Personality: A Psychological Interpretation. Personality analysis, like art, is subjective in nature. There is no single best recognised definition or theory of personality yet and different psychologists have different definitions and theories regarding personality. Psychologists themselves cannot arrive at a unifying definition of personality, due in part to its subjective nature. (Schultz 2) According to Sam Smiley, It is the form, or overall unity, of an individuals traits. It includes the complex of characteristics that distinguish one person from all others, and it admits the behavioural potentials of the individual which transcend all his attitudes and actions. . . . Personality is the totality of a human beings physiological and psychological traits, and therefore it is the epitome of whatever differentiates one human from every other human. (82-83) Robert B. Ewen gives one of the most comprehensive definitions of personality. He says, Personality deals with a wide range of human behaviour. To most theorists, personality includes virtually everything about a person-mental, emotional, social, and physical. Some aspects of personality are unobservable, such as thoughts, memories, and dreams, whereas others are observable, such as overt actions. Personality also includes aspects that are concealed from yourself, or unconscious, as well as those that are conscious and well within your awareness. (4) Some other significant definitions by noted psychologists are: Cattell offers the opinion that, Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation. . . . Personality is . . . concerned with all the behaviour of the individual, both overt and under the skin. (Liebert and Spiegler 3-4) Personality refers to the collection of attitudes and knowledge that a person possesses, that is, mainly those personal items that direct behaviour. In this context, personality is synonymous with mind. (McNeal 52) While defining personality it is only appropriate to remember that the word personality is derived from the Latin word persona which means a mask. One very important observation that has been made in this regard is: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦in early Latin, persona means a mask dramatis personae are the masks which actors wear in a play, that is, the characters that are represented. Etymologically and historically, then, the personality is the character that is manifested in public. In modern psychology and sociology this corresponds rather closely to the role behaviour of a differentiated person. From one point of view, this constitutes a disguise. Just as the outer body shields the viscera from view, and clothing the genitals, so the public personality shields the private personality from the curious and censorious world. It also operates to conceal underlying motivations from the individuals own consciousness. (Murray and Kluckhohn 40) The study of personality is a broad area and includes various theoretical constructs, conceptual approaches and research methodologies. The major theories include psychodynamic perspective, humanistic perspective, trait perspective, behaviourist perspective and cognitive perspective. The major personality theorists include Sigmund Freud, Carl Gustav Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, Harry Stack Sullivan, Erik Erikson, Carl R. Rogers, Abraham H. Maslow, Rollo May, Gordon W. Allport, Raymond B. Cattell, Henry A. Murray, B. F. Skinner, George A. Kelly and Albert Bandura. The present study deals with Gordon W. Allports and Henry A. Murrays theories of personality. The main aim is to study and analyse Michael Jacksons personality with the application of Allports and Murrays personality theories. The thesis focuses on Michael Jackson as an individual and how his character and personality are similar in several aspects to the character and personality of the picaro the antihero of picaresque novels. It is essential to study in detail the theories of both the psychologists in order to successfully use them as a tool to analyse the personalities of Michael Jackson and the picaro. Gordon Willard Allport (1897 1967) was a premier American psychologist who is often called the father of Personality theory. He is considered to be the founder of personality psychology as he was one of the first psychologists to have focused extensively on the study of personality. He was the first psychologist who gave thorough thought to the concept of traits in a person. He developed a theory called the trait theory and opined that the trait was the most appropriate way of describing and studying personality. Allport approached psychology and the issue of personality in a unique way. Allport revolutionized the world of psychology by moving the study of the personality into the mainstream of psychology. His theories are still debated, and he is considered one of the most controversial psychologists of our time. (Hall and Lindzey 260) Allports opinions differed from other psychologists. He believed in studying healthy and mature individuals. He felt the study of animals and neurotic people could not lead to conclusions pertinent to normally functioning adults. (Becoming 18) Secondly, Allport viewed every human being as unique. Therefore, he believed in studying an individual personality as opposed to studying people in common. He criticized scientists for their avoidance of the individual and their prevalent theory that individuality can only be studied by history, art or biography and not by science. He believed that nomothetic methods (general and universal) should be discouraged and idiographic methods (individual) must be encouraged. If we accept this dogma concerning the scope and limitations of science we shall have to abandon the person as a person. But we are not yet discouraged. That the individual is a system of patterned uniqueness is a fact. That science likes universals and not particulars is also a fact. Yet personality itself is a universal phenomenon though it is found only in individual forms. Since it is a universal phenomenon science must study it; but it cannot study it correctly unless it looks into the individuality of patterning! Such is the dilemma. (Pattern and Growth 9) Allport stated that there is no correct or incorrect definition of personality, rather all definitions are full of pitfalls. (Pattern and Growth 28) He defined personality as a dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment.(Personality 48) Because this definition reflects some unique phrasing and word choices, Allports own explanations of terminology and phrasing are presented. Dynamic Organization The personality is constantly changing, and any definition of personality must acknowledge this change. However, this change does not occur in the normal adult in a haphazard fashion; rather, it occurs within the boundaries of an organization. (Allport, Personality 48) This change occurs in a self -regulating and motivating fashion. This definition of organized change implies the existence of a reciprocal process of disorganization, especially in those personalities marked by progressive disintegration. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 28) Psychophysical This term serves as a reminder that personality is neither exclusively physical nor mental. Instead, the organization of the personality fuses the physical and mental in some inextricable unity. (Allport, Personality 48) Systems A system is a complex of elements in mutual interaction. The personality is composed of many systems. A habit, sentiment, trait, concept, or style of behaving are all systems and are latent in the personality even when they are not active. Systems are our potential for activity. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 28-29) Determine Personality is something, and it does something. Personality is active. Allport contended that the latent psychophysical systems, when called into action, either motivate or direct a specific activity or thought. (Pattern and Growth 29) Personality is not synonymous with behaviour or activity; personality is merely the impression that this activity makes on others. It is what lies behind specific acts and within the individual. (Allport, Personality 48) All systems that comprise a single personality are the determining tendencies. They exert a direct influence on the adjusting and expressive acts which make up the personality. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 29) Characteristic All behaviour and thought are characteristic of the person and are unique to that person. Allport acknowledged the use of this term, and the need to define it, appeared redundant in a definition whose very meaning stressed individuality and uniqueness. He used it, though, to drive the point home. (Pattern and Growth 29) Behaviour and Thought Allport used these two terms to cover anything whatsoever an individual might do. A persons main activity, according to Allport, is to adjust to the environment, but he felt it unwise to define personality only in terms of adjustment. He acknowledged the individual also reflects on the environment, strives to master it, and sometimes succeeds in this mastery of the environment. Thought as well as behaviour, then, make for both survival and growth. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 29) The following diagram depicts a comprehensive view of personality. Allport summarized his own definition of personality: My own definition of personality is essentialist. Personality is what a person really is, regardless of the way other people perceive his qualities or the methods by which we study them. Our perceptions and our methods may be in error, just as an astronomer may fall short in studying the constitution of a star. But the star is still there, a challenging object for study. My definition does not, of course, deny that a person is variable over time or that his behaviour may change from situation to situation. It says simply that the person has an internal structure and range of characteristics (variable, to be sure, but ascertainable), and it is this structure that we hope to study. (Pattern and Growth 35) The discussion in detail of Allports definition of personality and his approach towards both, personality and psychology, leads us to his theory of traits. According to Allport a trait is: a generalized and focalized neuropsychic system (peculiar to the individual), with the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide consistent (equivalent) forms of adaptive and expressive behaviour. (Personality 295) He believed that a trait exists within a person and is there even when a person is alone and away from the observation of others. Secondly, he believed that traits define behaviour and make it consistent. Traits, we must note from the outset, are not per se observables. Nor are they real entities. You will never be able to place them under a microscope. They are descriptive schemas that are the product of human reason and imagination. They serve a heuristic purpose, as do all other constructs about the world in which we live: namely, they give a conceptual order to our world and make it more comprehensible than it would be without them. That Allport ([1937] 1961), for example, stipulates that traits or personality for that matter have neuropsychic referents does not turn them into things (reify them so to speak). (Dumont 149) Allport clearly distinguished traits form types. Unlike traits types always have a biosocial reference. A man can be said to have a trait; but he cannot be said to have a type. Rather he fits a type.types exist not in people or in nature, but rather in the eye of the observer. Type includes more than is in the individual. Traits, on the contrary, are considered wholly within the compass of the individual. The crux of the distinction is that in a type the reference point is always some attribute, or cluster of corresponding attributes abstracted from various personalities. (Personality 295-296) Yet Allport was aware of the limitations involved in the study of traits: generalities of names; variability of emotions; the ability to observe only the act, which is the result of the trait rather than the trait itself. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 333-334) Even with the limitations involved in trait research, Allport believed them to be one of the strongest means for personality study. He did not blindly study personality traits, but tried to take into account all of the variables, for example: No trait theory can be sound unless it allows for, and accounts for, the variability of a persons conduct. Pressures from the surrounding environment, the companions he is with, and the counter current in the person himself may delay, augment, distort, or inhibit completely the conduct that we would normally expect to issue from a persons traits. . . . All this is true; yet in a persons stream of activity there is, besides a variable portion, likewise a constant portion; and it is this constant portion we seek to designate with the concept of trait. (Pattern and Growth 333) Allport draws a distinction between common traits and individual traits. A common trait identifies a trait which to some extent is reflected in many personalities. An individual trait, however, or personal disposition (as Allport came to call them), is peculiar to the individual. He points out that all traits are unique and no one trait can be found in more than one person. But at the same time for the science of personality and psychology to function properly it is important to compare individuals. Allport states that for all their ultimate differences, normal persons within a given culture-area tend to develop a limited number of roughly comparable modes of adjustment. The original endowment of most human beings, their stages of growth, and the demands of their particular society, are sufficiently standard and comparable to lead to some basic modes of adjustment that from individual to individual are approximately the same.(Pattern and Growth 298) Common traits are developed, according to Allport, because the human nature develops similar modes of adjusting to a similar environment, though varying degrees of individualism still exist (Pattern and Growth 349). Allport felt common traits were less important to the individual personality because they actually reflect the social mores developed through socialization, rather than personal choices. Therefore, common traits are constantly changing according to the growth, development, and fads of a particular society. Allport felt the very nature of the common trait made it less influential to the individual. Individual traits, on the other hand, have the capacity to initiate and guide consistent forms of adaptive and stylistic behaviour. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 373). However, Allport felt that for a complete and thorough study of personality both common and individual traits are essential: individual and common trait [concepts] are complementary in the study of personality. What is unique and what is universal both need to be explored. (Personality 299) Allport described traits by names. He identified approximately eighteen thousand words in the English language which named distinctive forms of personal behaviour. Though incomplete, Allport believed that, this list of words had an infinite scope. Allport categorized the 18,000 trait names: 30% have an evaluative flavour; 25% are comparative; 25% refer to temporary states of mind, mood, emotion, or activity, and 25% are metaphorical (Pattern and Growth 354-355). Allport was dissatisfied with the limitations of verbal tags. He recognized the weaknesses found in the subjective and limited nature of labelling: A trait of personality may or may not coincide with some well-defined, conventional social concept. . . It would be ideal if we could . . . find our traits first and then name them. But honesty, loyalty, neatness and tact, though encrusted with social significance, may likewise represent true traits of personality. The danger is that, in devising scales for their measurement, we may be bound by the conventional meanings and thus be led away from the precise integration as it exists in a given individual. Where possible, it would be well for us to find our traits first and then seek devaluated terms with which to characterize our discoveries. (Becoming 135) Allport understood that no single act is the product of only one trait, and a trait is only one factor in determining an act. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 334 and 360) This recognition of the complexity of the human nature led Allport to the conclusion that it is ridiculous to try to reduce human nature to a single element simply for the sake of explanation: We view personality in the only way it can be intelligibly viewedas a network of organization, composed of systems within systems, some systems of small magnitude and somewhat peripheral to the central or propriate structure, other systems of wider scope at the core of the total edifice; some easy to set into action, others more dormant; some so culturally conforming that they can readily be viewed as common; others definitely idiosyncratic. But in the last analysis this network-complying billions and billions of nerve cells, fashioned by a one-time heredity and by environmental experiences never duplicated-is ultimately unique. (Pattern and Growth 360) Although there is a certain degree of consistency found within the personality, the personality is not completely predictable. The inconsistency of dispositions could be due to a specific situation, or to the actual existence of opposite dispositions within an individual (Allport, Becoming 135). Allport felt that contradictory behaviour is often not contradictory at all, but a contrasting stylistic demonstration of the same personal disposition. What must be identified is the deepest disposition that is operating within an individual: Take the case of Dr. D., always neat about his person and desk, punctilious about lecture notes, outlines, and files; his personal possessions are not only in order but carefully kept under lock and key. Dr. D is also in charge of the departmental library. In this duty he is careless; he leaves the library door unlocked, and books are lost; it does not bother him that dust accumulates. Does this contradiction in behaviour mean that D lacks personal dispositions? Not at all. He has two opposed stylistic dispositions, one of orderliness and one of disorderliness. Different situations arouse different dispositions. Pursuing the case further, the duality is at least partly explained by the fact that D has one cardinal (motivational) disposition from which these contrasting styles proceed. The outstanding fact about his personality is that he is a self -centred egotist who never acts for other peoples interests, but always for his own. This cardinal self -centeredness (for which there is abundant evidence) demands orderliness for himself, but not for others. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 363) A particular trait can be identified and determined in a particular person only if the behaviour it characterises occurs repeatedly in by and large similar situations. According to Allport: A specific act is always the product of many determinants, not only of lasting sets, but of momentary pressures in the person and in the situation. It is only the repeated occurrence of acts having the same significance (equivalence of response) following upon a definable range of stimuli having the same personal significance (equivalence of stimuli) that makes necessary the inference of traits and personal dispositions. (Pattern and Growth 374) Allport put forward his classic doctrine of traits: A trait has more than nominal existence. A trait is more than a generalized habit. A trait is dynamic, or at least determinative. The existence of a trait may be established empirically or at least statistically. Traits are only relatively independent of each other. A trait of personality, psychologically considered, is not the same as a moral quality. Acts, and even habits, that are inconsistent with a trait are not proof of the nonexistence of the trait. A trait may be viewed either in the light of the personality which contains it, or in the light of its distribution in the population at large. (What is a Trait 368) Allport reasoned that some traits have more influence on an individual than other traits. He categorized these traits into three levels: Cardinal traits, Central traits and Secondary traits. Cardinal Traits A cardinal trait is so pervasive and outstanding in any given individual that almost every act can be traced to its influence and almost every aspect of a persons life is touched by it. A person is so dominated by the cardinal trait that it can rarely be hidden from others. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 365) Such a trait is so dominant in a person that the person comes to be known for that trait. It becomes almost synonymous to his personality. Examples of cardinal traits can be: narcissist and Casanova. A cardinal trait is considered to be rare and tends to develop in an individual at a later stage in his life. A person does not necessarily have only one cardinal trait, and this trait may change as a person matures and changes. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 365) Central Traits A central trait is less dominant as compared to a cardinal trait. Central traits form the foundation of an individuals personality. Central traits are easily detected characteristics within a person, traits that all people have a certain number of, five to ten on an average according to Allport. (Schultz 201) Secondary Traits On a less conspicuous level of influence are secondary dispositions. These traits are less generalized and less consistent than central dispositions. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 365) They might reflect something only a best friend would know. (Schultz 201). Allport did not set down any particular number of dispositions an individual might possess. How many dispositions has a person is a most audacious question, and can be answered in only a preliminary and speculative way. For many reasons the question is audacious: Behaviour is in continuous flow; dispositions never express themselves singly; people manifest contradictory dispositions in contradictory situations; furthermore, diagnostic methods are too ill developed to enable us to discover the answer. (Pattern and Growth 366) Allports trait theory can be summed up through the following diagram. Habits and attitudes are often confused with traits because of their similarities. Allport clearly defined habits and attitudes to avoid all confusion. According to Allport, a habit can function as a trait, but a trait is not always a habit. Habits are inflexible and specific in response to specific stimuli; traits are more generalized and variable in expression. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 346) A number of habits may be blended together to develop a trait; however, habits do not integrate automatically into traits. They do so when the person has some general concept or self image which leads to the fusion of the habit into a trait. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 346) Allport cites the example of a child brushing his teeth. A young child may be regarded as forming a specific habit when he learns (with difficulty) to brush his teeth night and morning. For some years this habit may stand alone, aroused only by appropriate commands or by the appropriate environmental situation. With the passing of years, however, brushing teeth becomes not only automatic (as is the way of habits) but likewise firmly woven into a much wider system of habits, viz., a trait of personal cleanliness. . . . The adult is uncomfortable if he omits brushing the teeth from his daily schedule, not only because a single habit is frustrated, but because the omission violates a general demand for cleanliness. (Allport, Personality 292) Allport explained that a trait is a fusion of habit and endowment rather than a colligation or chain of habits alone. (Personality 293) The transformation of habit to trait is simply when the motivation shifts from simple conditioned responses to a sheer liking of the activity as motivation. Then trait has become autonomous. (Allport, Personality 293) Allport distinguishes between a trait and an attitude in two ways. First, an attitude always has an object of reference; whereas, a trait does not direct itself specifically toward something. Second, an attitude is usually favourable or unfavourable, for or against. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 347) It involves a judgement or evaluation (pro or con), which a trait does not. (Schultz 200) Motivation According to Allport, the pivot of the theory of personality is the analysis of the nature of motivation. He defined motivation as any internal condition in a person that induces action or thought. (Pattern and Growth 196) Allport also believed a theory of motivation should meet four requirements: contemporaneity, pluralistic, cognitive process, and concrete uniqueness. (Schultz 201) Contemporaneity A theory of motivation must acknowledge the contemporaneity of motives. (Pattern and Growth 220) In other words, the importance of the present should be stressed: Motives leading to activity, it may be argued, are always operative at the time the activity takes place. Allport added, That which drives, drives now. (The Use of Personal 80) Allport was aware, however, that in complex adult motives the past is, to some degree, alive in the present. He considered it, however, the task of the psychologist to discover how much of the past is fire and how much of it is ashes. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 219) To think that the motives of mankind are essentially unchanged from birth until death seemed to Allport inadequate at best. (Pattern and Growth 203) That which once motivated, does not necessarily motivate always. It is important to realize the past is only important if it exists as a present or current motivating force, or is dynamically active in the present. (Allport, Pattern and Gro wth 220) More precisely stated, it is the unfinished structure that has this dynamic power. A finished structure is static; but a growing structure, tending toward a given direction of closure, has the capacity to subsidiate the guide conduct in conformity with its movement. (Allport, Becoming 91) Pluralistic Allport believed that a theory of motivation must have room for multiple motives. Motivation cannot be reduced to one general phase or drive. Some motives are transient, some recurring; some are momentary, others persistent; some unconscious, others conscious; some opportunistic, others propriate; some tension-reducing, others tension-maintaining. Motives are so diverse in type that we find it difficult to discover the common denominator. About all we can say is that a persons motives include all that he is trying (consciously or unconsciously, reflexly or deliberately) to do. (Pattern and Growth 221) Simplification does not explain motivation. Neither does reducing its strands to the simplified model of the machine, the animal, the child, or the pathological. (Pattern and Growth 222) A theory of motivation should allow that there may be some truth in each theory. (Pattern and Growth 221) Cognitive Process A theory of motivation must acknowledge the importance of the cognitive processes e.g. planning and intention. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 222) Allports requirement of cognitive process gives emphasis to the individuals conscious plans and intentions. These conscious intentions represent, above all else, the individuals primary mode of addressing the future. (Becoming 89) Thus, cognitive process stresses the importance of the future in the motivating process of the personality. Alport believed that all individuals possess the power of thought and it is this thought process which leads them to form decisions. Hence, an individuals intent should be central to understanding his personality. Allport defined intention as what an individual is trying to do, and he included several features of motivation derived from the concept of intention: The cognitive and emotive processes in personality become fused into an integral urge. The intention, like all motivation, exists in the present, but has strong future orientation. Use of the concept helps us to trace the course of motivation as lives are actually livedinto the future and not, as most theories do, backward into the past. It tells us what sort of future a person is trying to bring about and this is the most important question we can ask about any mortal. The term has a flavour of tension maintained and thus reflects the true condition of all long range motives. When we identify major intentions in a life we have a device for holding subsidiary trends in perspective. (Pattern and Growth 223). Allport believed the present should be explained more in terms of the future, not the past. It is more important to identify what a person intends to do and how they are presently acting out this intention, than to look toward the past of an individuals childhood or development. Unfortunately the concept of intention is not prominent in current psychology. The reason is that it connotes purpose, the efficacy of conscious planning, and a pull that mans image of the future exerts on his present conduct. . . . the more favoured physicalistic conception would say that he is pushed by his motives (not pulled by his intentions). Many psychologists would say that drives take entire care of what we here call intention. Yet drives as such are blind. They do not allow for organization and direction by cognitive attitudes, by foresight, by cortical control. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 224)

HIV and X-ray Crystallography Essay -- Biology AIDS

WHAT IS AIDS? AIDS stand for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ACQUIRED, how? The blood, vaginal fluid, semen, and breast milk of people with the AIDS virus contains enough of the virus to transmit it to another person. Most people who have acquired the AIDS virus have done so by having sex with an infected person, sharing a needle with one, or being born to a mother who is infected. IMMUNE DEFICIENCY? Catching the AIDS virus can be lethal because it affects the immune system, which is the system in the body that fights against diseases. A person with the AIDS virus has lower levels of CD4+ cells. These cells, commonly called "T-helper" cells are an essential part of the immune system. Normal people usually have between 500 to 1,500 CD4+ cells in a milliliter of blood. SYNDROME, what syndrome? A syndrome is a health related problem that accompanies a disease. Acquiring AIDS has many side affects. As the CD4+ levels in an AIDS patient decrease, side affects including fevers, night sweats, diarrhea or swollen lymph nodes increase. Some frequently asked questions Q: What's the difference between AIDS and HIV? A: AIDS is caused by the virus called the Human Immunodefiency Virus or HIV. HIV is a retrovirus. Initially when your body is infected with the virus, it takes time for it to take its toll on the immune system. At this point its affect may not be apparent for years. HIV becomes AIDS when one has less than 200 CD4+ cells per milliliter in their blood. Q: Can you tell whether a person has AIDS just by there physical appearance? A: No. You can't tell by simply looking at someone. They may appear completely healthy. Q: Is it possible to get AIDS by the transmission of fluids such as tears or saliv... ...osure of the gp41 ectodomain. Thus, the HIV virus invades a human cell and causes infection. Implications of this experiment Although the isolation and crystallization of the gp120-CD4 complex is a milestone for HIV research, there is still much work to be done. With further research of this nature, we can learn even more about the initial interactions between HIV and the human lymphocyte cells. The more we learn about these interactions, the closer researchers will come to developing some type drug to prevent infection. In this case the ultimate goal is to discover some type of chemical that will bind to gp120 and keep it from binding to CD4. However, as there is currently no cure for AIDS, and the drugs to ease the disease's symptoms tend to be quite expensive, it is crucial that each and every person be properly educated about AIDS prevention.

Postion Paper: Nature Vs. Nurture -- essays research papers

Position Paper: Nature vs. Nurture   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The controversy of nature vs. nurture has been going on for many years, and a decision has not yet been reached in which one is the most affective. Using the results of the countless tests done, everyday situations, and the twins experiment, I will prove that nature is a larger contributor to the outcome of our personalities than nurture.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Firstly, many psychologists and Universities, such as Harvard, conducted countless test to determined which traits of our personalities seemed to be inherited, and which seemed to be developed from our own life experiences. For most of the traits measured, more than half the variation was found to be due to heredity. Among these traits were things such as leadership abilities, traditionalism, obedience or lack of, and surprisingly enough, the strict enforcement of rules. An not all the things tested were based on stature and parental ways. Some that tested out at least 50% due to heredity included a sense of well-being, zest for life; alienation; vulnerability or resistance to stress and fearfulness or risk-seeking. All these factors have to do directly with our personality. Our goals for achieving and future were another thing that tested out to be largely due to heredity and genes. The need to achieve, including ambition and inclination to work hard towards goals is an example of that. All these points simply prove that there are very many trai...

Beyond Free Will in Mary Shelleys Frankenstein Essay -- Frankenstein

Beyond Free Will in Shelly’s Frankenstein  Ã‚   One of the greatest gifts God has given to man is free will.   Free will is the ability to choose our own life’s path, to make decisions, and to suffer our own consequences. God has intended free will to allow us to live our own life by the rules we choose.   However, does free will reach a certain point as which to not crossover?   Man has always envied God, and has always tried to become god-like.   Does this ambition compromise our free will?   In Mary Shelly’s classic novel Frankenstein, Viktor Frankenstein’s tries to bring the dead back to life, and he is successful in animating a creation of his own.   The consequences of his ambition compromised his free will and destroyed his life.   Viktor Frankenstein reached the point of free will which man is not intended to cross over.   Viktor Frankenstein is a fool for trying to play God.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Free will was a gift granted to man right from the start of history.   In the story of Genesis, free will granted by God allowed Adam and Eve to eat from any tree in the garden, including the tree of knowledge.   However, God did set a rule.   â€Å"The Lord God commanded the man, â€Å"You are free to eat from any tree in the garden; but you must not eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, for when you eat of it you will surely die.†1  Ã‚   Now, in this story, man is tricked by the serpent, representing the devil, and eats from the tree of knowledge.   He does not die in a sense, but is cast out of paradise and is forced to work off the land for the remainder of his now mortal life.   In a letter from Paul to the Galatians, Paul writes, â€Å"You, my brothers, were called to be free.   But do not use your freedom to indulge the sinful nature.†2  Ã‚   In thes... ...†9  Ã‚   Giving life is God’s job, and any man who tries to become god-like in this sense will surely suffer the consequences of his actions according to Mary Shelly.   I completely agree, and I will conclude with a retrospective quote from Viktor Frankenstein.   â€Å"Learn from me, if not by my precepts, at least by my example, how dangerous is the acquirement of knowledge, and how much happier that man is who believes his native town to be the world, than he who aspires to become greater than his nature will allow.†10 1. Genesis 2: 16-17   (NIV) 2. Galatians 5: 13a   (NIV) 3. Shelly, Mary.   Frankenstein, Norton Critical Edition, p. 30 4. Shelly, p. 32 5. Shelly, p. 49 6. Shelly, p. 115 7. Shelly, p. 116 8. Shelly, p. 137 9. Luke 7: 14-15   (NIV) 10. Shelly, p. 31 Works Cited: Shelly, Mary. Frankenstein. Quality Paperback Book Club, New York. 1994. Beyond Free Will in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein Essay -- Frankenstein Beyond Free Will in Shelly’s Frankenstein  Ã‚   One of the greatest gifts God has given to man is free will.   Free will is the ability to choose our own life’s path, to make decisions, and to suffer our own consequences. God has intended free will to allow us to live our own life by the rules we choose.   However, does free will reach a certain point as which to not crossover?   Man has always envied God, and has always tried to become god-like.   Does this ambition compromise our free will?   In Mary Shelly’s classic novel Frankenstein, Viktor Frankenstein’s tries to bring the dead back to life, and he is successful in animating a creation of his own.   The consequences of his ambition compromised his free will and destroyed his life.   Viktor Frankenstein reached the point of free will which man is not intended to cross over.   Viktor Frankenstein is a fool for trying to play God.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Free will was a gift granted to man right from the start of history.   In the story of Genesis, free will granted by God allowed Adam and Eve to eat from any tree in the garden, including the tree of knowledge.   However, God did set a rule.   â€Å"The Lord God commanded the man, â€Å"You are free to eat from any tree in the garden; but you must not eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, for when you eat of it you will surely die.†1  Ã‚   Now, in this story, man is tricked by the serpent, representing the devil, and eats from the tree of knowledge.   He does not die in a sense, but is cast out of paradise and is forced to work off the land for the remainder of his now mortal life.   In a letter from Paul to the Galatians, Paul writes, â€Å"You, my brothers, were called to be free.   But do not use your freedom to indulge the sinful nature.†2  Ã‚   In thes... ...†9  Ã‚   Giving life is God’s job, and any man who tries to become god-like in this sense will surely suffer the consequences of his actions according to Mary Shelly.   I completely agree, and I will conclude with a retrospective quote from Viktor Frankenstein.   â€Å"Learn from me, if not by my precepts, at least by my example, how dangerous is the acquirement of knowledge, and how much happier that man is who believes his native town to be the world, than he who aspires to become greater than his nature will allow.†10 1. Genesis 2: 16-17   (NIV) 2. Galatians 5: 13a   (NIV) 3. Shelly, Mary.   Frankenstein, Norton Critical Edition, p. 30 4. Shelly, p. 32 5. Shelly, p. 49 6. Shelly, p. 115 7. Shelly, p. 116 8. Shelly, p. 137 9. Luke 7: 14-15   (NIV) 10. Shelly, p. 31 Works Cited: Shelly, Mary. Frankenstein. Quality Paperback Book Club, New York. 1994.

Hardware and software report Essay

In this report, I will be discussing what hardware, software, operating system, and how this would be benefiting the company. I will also state how I used the hardware and software, which helped the company. Once that I done, I will describe the advantages and disadvantages of the hardware and software that I used, and compare them to the hardware and software that I could have used. Definitions of hardware, software and operating system: Computer hardware typically consists chiefly of electronic devices (CPU, memory, display) with some electromechanical parts (keyboard, printer, disk drives, tape drives, loudspeakers, floppy discs) for input, output, and storage, though completely non-electronic. A package/application is a complete, self-contained program that performs a specific function directly for the user. This is in contrast to system software such as the operating system kernel, server processes and libraries, which exists to support application programs. The operating system is Software designed to control the hardware of a specific data-processing system in order to allow users and application programs to make use of it. The hardware that I used was:   Tulip monitor: low emission   Tulip CPU: E85-00970   Tulip mouse: M-S48a   HP LaserJet 2200d   HP LaserJet 4200n   Floppy disc   Internet modem The software that I used was:   Microsoft Excel Microsoft Word   Microsoft Paint   Windows Xp Microsoft Word Pad   Internet explorer   Windows Me The advantages of the hardware that I used were:   My work was saved on a CPU, and so my work wouldn’t get lost. My work was save on a floppy disc as backup.   The laser HP LaserJet 2200d and HP LaserJet 4200n was very fast in printing my work. The advantages of the software that I used were: Microsoft excel is the easiest package to use a spreadsheet.   Microsoft word is easier to use, then any other writing package. Microsoft paint is the easiest image package to use. The disadvantages of the hardware that I used were:   The computer monitor might freeze, causing me to not do my work.   The printer might not work, so I will not be able to print my work.   The printer might only have black ink, not coloured ink. The floppy disc might be full so that I cannot store any more work on the disc. The disadvantages of the software that I used were:   The Microsoft package might be out of use due to a failure in the computer.   Windows might not have the new updates on the computer, as there might be an old package on the computer, rather then the new one, I. e. Windows 95 instead of Windows Xp. There might not be Internet explorer on the computer to help you with you research. The other hardware that I could have used was: Scanner Zip disc   Different Internet modem, I. e. Blue yonder one-megabit modem. The other software that I could have used was: Microsoft spreadsheet.   Microsoft word processor Microsoft publisher   Microsoft PowerPoint (if I was doing a presentation) When you compare ICT with non-ICT you can see that ICT is so much easier than hand writing something. One reason is that your handwriting might be very bad and as a result, people will not be able read your handwriting. Secondly, when you write pages and pages of information concerning the company, then your hand tends to become tired. With the use of ICT, you won’t get tired as you will just be typing, and will eventually feel tired, but not as quickly as you would have done. Another point, which makes ICT much better than any Non ICT, is that if you make a mistake while you are working with non-ICT, you will not be able to make a change very easily, but with ICT you com press the delete or key to get rid of the mistake. Other uses of ICT within Future Fashions are that you can use a mainframe or a midrange, which are unique operating systems. What this would allow you to do is to do better work, as there is better equipment and better facilities to use in a mainframe and in a midrange. Future fashions were not that efficient as they had a lot of problems in the company. One of which was that they didn’t even have a logo or a slogan. That just showed how efficient they were, as they didn’t even have a log and slogan, and they are meant to be a clothes company. Other problems that they had were; they had no spreadsheet to show how all the employee’s records were like, no graph to see how much they ware getting paid and no wage slip to show how much the employees would get paid. So in the end, what I did to solve these problems were to actually make the logo, slogan, spreadsheet, graph and wage slip. I think that all the solutions that I can up with very well in the end. The logo was colourful and eye catching, and the slogan was very catchy. The spreadsheet was very easy for the owners of Future Fashions to read from and the graph was also easy for the owners of Future Fashions to see how much each employee gets paid, and could compare the money that the employees get by the other employees. Lastly, the wage slip was successful as the owners of Future Fashions could see how much the employee was getting paid, how much tax there was, how much National Insurance there was, etc. Eventfully, as a result of my work, the problems of future fashions disappeared. The company will now become very successful, in my opinion, as most of the problems have been solved, and Future Fashions can now really take off. A summery of what I have said in the 3-4 pages is just that the hardware and software that I used was very successful for the owners of Future Fashions as it helped the owners of Future Fashions when they needed it most, and as a result, this will benefit the owners on Future Fashions in the long run. The problems that I came across whilst doing this project to help Future Fashions were:   Sometimes the printer wouldn’t print in colour because it was a black ink printer. The computer froze a few times, so I had to do it again.   When the computers were getting rebooted after the power cut, all of my work got deleted. Overall, I have found out that the solutions that I came up with really helped the company named Future Fashions. I also found out that all the solutions that I came up with improved the image of Future Fashions, making it a very successful company.

The Truancy in Schools

Truancy is on the rise, and is a precursor to anti-social behavior. It can result from bullying, disaffection and ensuing alienation. Not every student can be academically minded, and though academic qualifications are one of the poorest indicators of potential, yet the imperative need of school education cannot be ignored. And staying in school is the first step to a good education. Truancy results in students losing the benefits of instruction, and the community ultimately suffers from an increase in juvenile crime. The problem can be resolved by a concerted combined effort. The first responsibility is of the concerned school. There has to be a combination of carrot and stick policy. While the counselors and peer groups would motivate, the fear of juvenile courts can be an effective deterrent. Peers have an affirmative influence on students' decision to play truant. One study reported that 84 percent of the interviewed truants said their friends skipped school. Anti truancy programs that expose truants to other peer groups and other methods of interaction may be effective in reducing truancy. The most successful way of countering the truancy can be a structured approach which: Involves parents in all truancy prevention activities. Parents play the fundamental role in the education of their children. It is critical that parents of truant children assume responsibility for truant behavior. Ensure that students face firm sanctions for truancy. Schools should communicate to their students that they have zero tolerance for truancy. Establish ongoing truancy prevention programs in school. Truancy can be caused by factors like drug use, violence at or near schools, association with truant friends, lack of family support for regular attendance, etc. Involve local law enforcement in truancy reduction efforts. The school officials should establish close linkages with local police, probation officers, and juvenile and family court officials This integrated concerted approach can counter and solve the problem of truancy that is symptomatic of a social malaise.